Rachel Bratescu, Anthony Robayo, Evan Wang, Chibuikem A. Ikwuegbuenyi, Lawrance K. Chung, Noah Willett, Andreas K. Demetriades, Sun-Ho Lee, Roger Härtl, AO Spine Knowledge Forum Degenerative
Neurospine 2026;23(1):94-108. Published online January 31, 2026
Recurrent lumbar disc herniation (RLDH) is a common complication after discectomy, occurring in 2%–25% of patients and contributing to higher reoperation rates, reduced satisfaction, and substantial direct and indirect costs. This review evaluates the economic consequences of RLDH and the relative cost-effectiveness of available management strategies. A systematic search of OVID, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library was performed through August 2025. Peer-reviewed, English-language studies were included if they examined adults (≥18 years) with RLDH and reported economic data. Exclusion criteria were studies limited to primary, cervical, or thoracic herniations; animal or cadaveric models; and abstracts. Extracted variables included study design, sample size, follow-up duration, and cost components. Of 283 records identified, 220 were screened and 35 underwent full-text review. Six studies met inclusion criteria, with 2 added through citation searching. Reported costs varied considerably: repeat discectomy added $6,907 in one analysis, while fusion increased expenses by more than 350%. Across studies, repeat discectomy remained the most cost-efficient option, providing comparable outcomes with reduced perioperative expenditures. Conservative management had the lowest immediate direct costs (≈$2,300) but likely underestimates the overall burden due to unmeasured productivity losses. Annular closure devices demonstrated potential cost savings of $2,000–5,000 over 2–5 years. RLDH imposes a substantial economic burden. Heterogeneity in costing methods remains a major limitation which hinders evidence-based determinations. Greater transparency, methodological standardization, and incorporation of societal perspectives are essential to accurately assess the socioeconomic impact of RLDH.
Objective To evaluate the direct costs of various spinal surgical procedures within 1 year of follow-up and to compare the profiles of neurosurgeons and orthopedic surgeons.
Methods All spinal procedures performed within a 10-month period in patients covered by a private insurance company were included. Costs related to the spinal interventions were systematically registered in the company database. Associated costs during the 1-year follow-up were recorded.
Results In total, 1,862 patients were included, with a total cost of €11,050,970, of whom 34.8% underwent noninstrumented lumbar decompression (€3,473), 27.1% dorsolumbar instrumented fusion (€6,619), 14.6% nucleoplasty (€1,323), 13.5% cervical surgery (€4,463), 3.4% kyphoplasty (€4,200), 2.9% scoliosis (€15,414), 1.2% oncologic surgery (€5,590), 0.5% traumatic compression (€7,844), and 4.7% (€1,343) other minor interventions (mainly rhizotomies). Approximately 42% of patients required reinterventions within the first year, with a global extra cost of €7,280,073; 11% were referred to the pain clinic, with a €114,663 cost; 55.5% were men; and the most common age range of patients who received an intervention was 65–75 years. Neurosurgeons performed 60% of all interventions. Noninstrumented lumbar operations were performed by neurosurgeons twice as often as instrumented operations, and they performed 76% of cervical operations. Orthopedic surgeons performed 2.5 times more instrumented than noninstrumented lumbar operations, and almost all scoliosis and rhizotomy procedures.
Conclusion The direct costs of spinal surgery in Spain were generally lower than those reported in other European Union countries and the United States. Neurosurgeons and orthopedic surgeons had different spine surgical profiles and costs.
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Objective We investigate the cost-effectiveness of adding robotic technology in spine surgery to an active neurosurgical practice.
Methods The time of operative procedures, infection rates, revision rates, length of stay, and possible conversion of open to minimally invasive spine surgery (MIS) secondary to robotic image guidance technology were calculated using a combination of institution-specific and national data points. This cost matrix was subsequently applied to 1 year of elective clinical case volume at an academic practice with regard to payor mix, procedural mix, and procedural revenue.
Results A total of 1,985 elective cases were analyzed over a 1-year period; of these, 557 thoracolumbar cases (28%) were analyzed. Fifty-eight (10.4%) were MIS fusions. Independent review determined an additional ~10% cases (50) to be candidates for MIS fusion. Furthermore, 41.4% patients had governmental insurance, while 58.6% had commercial insurance. The weighted average diagnosis-related group reimbursement for thoracolumbar procedures for the hospital system was calculated to be $25,057 for Medicare and $42,096 for commercial insurance. Time savings averaged 3.4 minutes per 1-level MIS procedure with robotic technology, resulting in annual savings of $5,713. Improved pedicle screw accuracy secondary to robotic technology would have resulted in 9.47 revisions being avoided, with cost savings of $314,661. Under appropriate payor mix components, robotic technology would have converted 31 Medicare and 18 commercial patients from open to MIS. This would have resulted in 140 fewer total hospital admission days ($251,860) and avoided 2.3 infections ($36,312). Robotic surgery resulted in immediate conservative savings estimate of $608,546 during a 1-year period at an academic center performing 557 elective thoracolumbar instrumentation cases.
Conclusion Application of robotic spine surgery is cost-effective, resulting in lesser revision surgery, lower infection rates, reduced length of stay, and shorter operative time. Further research is warranted, evaluating the financial impact of robotic spine surgery.
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